VET Mei / May 2025 The Monthly Magazine of the SOUTH AFRICAN VETERINARY ASSOCIATION Die Maandblad van die SUID-AFRIKAANSE VETERINÊRE VERENIGING Diagnosis of Cranial Cruciate Ligament Disease in Dogs CPD THEME Bees and Donkeys nuus•news Access to CPD Articles: https://www.sava.co.za/vetnews-2025/
Dagboek • Diary Ongoing / Online 2025 May 2025 June 2025 SAVETCON: Webinars Info: Corné Engelbrecht, SAVETCON, 071 587 2950, corne@savetcon.co.za / https://app.livestorm.co/svtsos Acupuncture – Certified Mixed Species Course Info: Chi University: https://chiu.edu/courses/cva#aboutsouthafrica@tcvm.com SAVA Johannesburg Branch CPD Events Monthly - please visit the website for more info. Venue: Johannesburg Country Club Info: Vetlink - https://savaevents.co.za/ SAALAS: Well-Being 5-7 May Venue: 26° South Hotel, Muldersdrift Gauteng. Info: https://www.saalas.org/ or contact Vetlink Mpumalanga Branch CPD Evening 06 May Venue: La Villa Vita, Mbombela Info: conference@savetcon.co.za NVCG Ophthalmology Road Show 08 May Venue: Protea Hotel Technopark, Stellenbosch Info: https://vetlink.co.za/nvcg-ophthalmology-roadshow-2025/ or www.vetlink.co.za NVCG Ophthalmology Road Show 15 May Venue: Premier Hotel, Midrand Info: https://vetlink.co.za/nvcg-ophthalmology-roadshow-2025/ or www.vetlink.co.za RuVASA Annual Conference 19 – 21 May: NOW ALSO ONLINE! Venue: Radisson Hotel & Convention Centre, Johannesburg, O.R. Tambo Airport (Gauteng) Info: www.vetlink.co.za Eastern Free State Branch Congress 06-07 June Venue: Protea Hotel, Clarens Info: conference@savetcon.co.za MPO First-Ever Total Mixed Ration (TMR) Conference 08 -10 June Venue: Radisson Hotel, O.R. Tambo Airport (Gauteng) Info : The Milk Producers’ Organisation (MPO), Lize Marié du Toit - lizem@mpo.co.za or 076 774 1284 July 2025 August 2025 September 2025 55th Annual SASAS Congress 08 -10 July Venue: Protea Hotel, The Ranch Resort, Polokwane Info: https://www.sasascongress.co.za/ Hill’s & MSD Nurses Weekend 26-27 July Venue: Houw Hoek Hotel, Grabouw Info: corne@savetcon.co.za NVCG Bush Break 26-27 July Venue: Nombolo Mdhluli Conference Centre, Skukuza, Kruger National Park, Mpumalanga Info: https://vetlink.co.za/BUSH-BREAK-26-27-JULY-2025/ Western Cape Branch Congress 01-02 August Venue: Protea Hotel, Marriott Stellenbosch & Conf Centre Info: https://vetlink.co.za/western_cape/ 14th International Veterinary Immunology Symposium 11-14 August Venue: Hilton Vienna Park, Austria Info: corne@savetcon.co.za or visit www.ivis2025.org 22nd Annual SASVEPM Congress 20 -22 August Venue: ANEW Resort White River, Mpumalanga, SA Info: https://sasvepm.org/ or conferences@vetlink.co.za Eastern Cape and Karoo Branch Congress 12-13 September Venue: Radisson Blu Hotel, Port Elizabeth Info: https://vetlink.co.za/eastern_cape_and_karoo_branch/ 5th International Congress on Parasites of Wildlife and 53rd Annual PARSA Conference 14-18 September Venue: Skukuza, Kruger National Park, Mpumalanga Info: corne@savetcon.co.za or visit www.savetcon.co.za
Vetnuus | May 2025 1 Contents I Inhoud President: Dr Ziyanda Qwalela president@sava.co.za Interim Managing Director: Dr Paul van der Merwe md@sava.co.za Editor VetNews: Ms Andriette van der Merwe vetnews@sava.co.za Accounts / Bookkeeping: Ms Sonja Ludik bookkeeper@sava.co.za/+27 (0)12 346 1150 Secretary: Ms Sonja Ludik sonja@sava.co.za/ +27 (0)12 346 1150 Reception: Ms Hanlie Swart reception@sava.co.za/ +27 (0)12 346 1150 Marketing & Communications: Ms Sonja van Rooyen marketing@sava.co.za/ +27 (0)12 346 1150 Membership Enquiries: Ms Debbie Breeze debbie@sava.co.za/ +27 (0)12 346 1150 Vaccination Booklets: Ms Debbie Breeze debbie@sava.co.za/ +27 (0)12 346 1150 South African Veterinary Foundation: Ms Debbie Breeze savf@sava.co.za/ +27 (0)12 346 1150 Community Veterinary Clinics: Ms Claudia Cloete manager@savacvc.co.za/ +27 (0)63 110 7559 SAVETCON: Ms Corné Engelbrecht corne@savetcon.co.za/ +27 (0)71 587 2950 VetNuus is ‘n vertroulike publikasie van die SAVV en mag nie sonder spesifieke geskrewe toestemming vooraf in die openbaar aangehaal word nie. Die tydskrif word aan lede verskaf met die verstandhouding dat nóg die redaksie, nóg die SAVV of sy ampsdraers enige regsaanspreeklikheid aanvaar ten opsigte van enige stelling, feit, advertensie of aanbeveling in hierdie tydskrif vervat. VetNews is a confidential publication for the members of the SAVA and may not be quoted in public or otherwise without prior specific written permission to do so. This magazine is sent to members with the understanding that neither the editorial board nor the SAVA or its office bearers accept any liability whatsoever with regard to any statement, fact, advertisement or recommendation made in this magazine. VetNews is published by the South African Veterinary Association STREET ADDRESS 47 Gemsbok Avenue, Monument Park, Pretoria, 0181, South Africa POSTAL ADDRESS P O Box 25033, Monument Park Pretoria, 0105, South Africa TELEPHONE +27 (0)12 346-1150 FAX General: +27 (0) 86 683 1839 Accounts: +27 (0) 86 509 2015 WEB www.sava.co.za CHANGE OF ADDRESS Please notify the SAVA by email: debbie@sava.co.za or letter: SAVA, P O Box 25033, Monument Park, Pretoria, 0105, South Africa CLASSIFIED ADVERTISEMENTS (Text to a maximum of 80 words) Sonja van Rooyen assistant@sava.co.za +27 (0)12 346 1150 DISPLAY ADVERTISEMENTS Sonja van Rooyen assistant@sava.co.za +27 (0)12 346 1150 DESIGN AND LAYOUT Sonja van Rooyen PRINTED BY Business Print: +27 (0)12 843 7638 VET Diary / Dagboek II Dagboek • Diary Regulars / Gereeld 2 From the President 4 Editor’s notes / Redakteurs notas Articles / Artikels 8 Bees and Microplastic Studies: A Systematic Review 20 Complete Blood Count and Biochemistry Reference Intervals for Healthy Adult Donkeys in the United States Association / Vereniging 28 SAVA News 36 Nestlé Purina Commits to Support the South African Veterinary Association’s Mentorship Program 38 Legal Mews Events / Gebeure 36 OP Class of '72: Reunion Vet's Health / Gesondheid 42 Life Coaching Technical / Tegnies 40 DentalColumn Relax / Ontspan 47 Life Plus 26 Marketplace / Markplein 44 Marketplace Jobs / Poste 45 Jobs / Poste 46 Classifieds / Snuffeladvertensies 8 36 20 Click on the image to access Vetnews CPD articles « nuus•news
Vetnews | Mei 2025 2 « BACK TO CONTENTS One is still euphoric from the beautiful 2023 & 2024 SAVA Awards function held on the last Saturday of April. I reflected with immense pride on the achievements of those recognised on the day. The 2023 & 2024 SAVA Awards held on World Veterinary Day, served not only as a celebration of excellence but also as a reminder of the profound impact that dedicated individuals continue to have on our profession. I extend our heartfelt congratulations to all those honoured and our sincere gratitude to the sponsors who made it possible to recognise their contributions in a manner truly befitting their stature. As we look ahead, the call for nominations for the 2025 SAVA Awards is now open. Let us take this opportunity to uplift our peers, foster the participation of the younger generation of veterinarians, and build the depth required for sustained excellence across all spheres of veterinary science. April marked significant progress within SAVA’s internal operations. The recruitment for a new General Manager is underway, and the inaugural meeting of the SAVA Strategy and Business Model Review Team, under the leadership of Financial Director Dr. Tom Spencer, was fruitful outlining areas of focus in the short to medium term. Parallel to our national efforts, global collaboration also progresses through the WVA/FAO joint project aimed at enhancing synergy between veterinarians and para-veterinary professionals. While implementation challenges are acknowledged, revised plans are in place with workshops now scheduled for September 2025. Once again we are called upon to be active members of the profession with the gazetting of the CCS Programme regulations for comment. Kindly check the vet flash sent in this regard. Comments are required before the 22 May 2025. Voting in the SAVC elections is still open. Please register your vote before polls close and participate in shaping the future of our profession. Lastly, colleagues, as we inch towards “flu” season let us be reminded that the livestock sector always remains vulnerable to the incursion of diseases of economic importance. Avian Influenza and Foot and Mouth disease remain high on the priority list. Responding to these incursions requires that the veterinarians and para-veterinarians in the relevant spheres, work together to control and/or mitigate the risk of occurrence. Let’s remain vigilant as we provide services to our clients and advise them at every opportunity of the risks related to poor biosecurity practices. Looking ahead to the second half of the year, SAVA will continue to strengthen its relationships with stakeholders, notably through renewed engagement with DALRRD. Our vision remains clear: through unity and informed collaboration, we will bolster the resilience of South Africa’s livestock population and secure the future of veterinary science. Let us continue to grow. Let us continue to celebrate! v Warmest regards, Ziyanda From the President Dear members, Growth and Celebration
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Vetnews | Mei 2025 4 « BACK TO CONTENTS Why would you say is there a bee on the front cover of this month’s Vetnews and What do donkeys and bees have in common? Well, they both are in one month of Vetnews. World Donkey Day falls on the 8th of May. A little bit of an ugly duckling when it comes to Veterinary Care. Maybe because donkeys are pretty resilient when it comes to diseases but also because they do not have a lot of value, that is for people who do not own a donkey and are maybe not dependent on it for transport or ploughing fields. In the magazine find an article on the Blood count and biochemistry base values of donkeys. It may come in handy for a reference one day. During my research, I also found an article on Brucellosis in Donkeys. I am not sure if it is seen in South Africa and how much donkey milk is used but in other countries it is a rising concern. Reference Code for the Brucellosis article World Bee Day falls on the 20th of May (also a birthday for me). Bees are worldwide under threat from diseases and parasites. It may fall in the category of” If I do not see it, it does not bother me” but bees are more than just a nasty sting. They are integral in plant food production. While not officially classified as threatened, bee populations in South Africa are facing numerous threats, and several species are listed as vulnerable. These threats include diminishing forage resources, pesticide use, habitat loss, and the impact of certain beekeeping practices, particularly the introduction of non-native honeybee species. South Africa has been recognised globally as a bee diversity hotspot, with close to 1,000 out of the 20,000 worldwide bee species, many of which are endemic to the Fynbos and Succulent Karoo biomes. According to an article on the Woodland Trust.org website, wild bees pollinate on a much bigger and more efficient scale. Bees pollinate the crops used for animal feed and while there are other methods of pollination, it would cost UK farmers a whopping £1.8 Billion to manually pollinate crops. Fun facts about honeybees: Bees have five eyes (two compound eyes and three single-lens eyes) and a worker bee’s main eyes have nearly 7000 lenses. An electrostatic charge on the bee’s hairs attracts pollen and the leg brushes, then scrapes, the pollen from front to back, where it collects in the pollen basket – a wide, flat area on the rear pair of legs. The proboscis (long tongue) is an airtight, straw-like tube that sucks up nectar and also works in reverse to feed offspring from the honey stomach. Being less mobile than running up mountains and on crutches for a while now, I have learned to observe the ground very carefully. Something that I have noticed is the amount of 10-cent coins discarded. It is in a way saddening as the 10 cent has economically so little value that it is not guarded and valued any more. The very interesting thing that I noticed is that the new 10 cent carries the honeybee as the emblem. While I still walk with crutches or walking sticks, I will be collecting honeybee 10 cents and remembering how important they are to our lives v Andriette From the Editor Editor’s notes / Redakteurs notas see what bees and donkeys have in common.. https://www.researchgate.net/ publication/389088665_Veterinary_World_The_ burden_of_brucellosis_in_donkeys_and_its_ implications_for_public_health_and_animal_ welfare_A_systematic_review_and_metaanalysis_A_B_S_T_R_A_C_T Look inside
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Vetnews | Mei 2025 6 « BACK TO CONTENTS SA EVENT MANAGEMENT ETCON YEARS 2004-2024 6-7 JUN SAVA Eastern Free-State Branch Congress Protea Hotel Marriot, Clarens 26-27 JUL Hill’s Pet NutriƟon & MSD Animal Health Houw Hoek Hotel, Grabouw 11-14 AUG th 14 InternaƟonal Veterinary Immunology Hilton Vienna Park, Austria 14-18 SEPT th 5 InternaƟonal Congress on Parasites of Skukuza Kruger NaƟonal Park 30 OCT - th 10 South African Immunology Society Garden Court Marine Parade, KZN 18-19 OCT SAVA Free-State & Northern Cape Branch Bloemfontein 2026 1-4 th 13 InternaƟonal Crustacean Society STIAS, Stellenbosch Conference Congress Conference rd Wildlife and 53 Annual PARSA Conference Symposium Nurses Hybrid Weekend www.savetcon.co.za +27(0)71 587 2950 www COMING UP 01 NOV 6 MAY SAVA Mpumalanga Branch CPD Evening Villa Vita, Mbombela JUN 2025
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Vetnews | Mei 2025 8 « BACK TO CONTENTS Bees and Microplastic Studies: A Systematic Review Karla Fernanda Sanches Rodrigues1,2 Beatriz Regina Rodrigues Carvalho1,2 Felipe Andrés León Contrera4 Welber Senteio Smith1,2,3,4 Abstract Microplastic contamination is no longer confined exclusively to aquatic environments and their organisms. Over the past 20 years, microplastics have increasingly been recognized as a source of contamination in terrestrial ecosystems and the organisms that inhabit them. Some studies have reported that these contaminants can alter the intestinal microbiota of bees, which may also harm their immune system and, consequently, directly impact the health of these animals. These consequences can impair bees’ ability to effectively carry out their foraging activities, potentially leading to the decline of the hive and negatively impacting the ecosystem services they provide through pollination. However, research linking microplastics to bees is still in its early stages. Therefore, this work conducted a systematic review, applying selection and exclusion criteria to studies published between 2000 and 2024 that mentioned bees or bee products in relation to microplastics. These publications were extracted from electronic databases (Google Scholar, Scielo, Scopus, PubMed, and Web of Science). With the keywords used, 920 works were found, of which 33 met the pre-established review criteria, produced between 2013 and 2024, most of them from Italy (six studies) and China (five studies). Among the 33 studies selected, twelve are bibliographic reviews, indicating the need for further primary studies related to the subject, since bees provide vital ecosystem services through pollination. Introduction Modern society widely uses plastic due to its resistance, ability to be moulded, and cost-effectiveness (Oliveira et al. 2019). Plastic production increased from 1.5 million tonnes in 2017 to 359 million in 2018; of this amount, approximately 79% remains in the environment in the form of waste, which can spread through the air, water, and soil (Bouaicha et al. 2022). Smaller plastics are created for usage in the industry or are formed by the degradation of larger plastics that are disposed of incorrectly.
Vetnuus | May 2025 9 They are classified as micro (0.001–5 mm) and nano-plastics (1–1000 nm) (Vitali et al. 2022). Microplastics (MPs) have been discussed as an emerging class of air pollutants due to being transported over long distances through the wind or vectors such as bees (Cunningham et al. 2022) or are created in smaller sizes, The relationship between plants and pollinators is considered one of the most important ecological interactions within the animalplant category. In the absence of pollinators, many plants would be unable to release seeds and reproduce. Similarly, the absence of pollen, nectar, and other floral resources would lead to a decrease in pollinator populations, indirectly affecting other species in the trophic chain (Oliveira et al. 2024). Bees, in their different levels of sociality (Michener 2007), are responsible for providing one of the most vital pollination services to maintain ecosystems (Nowak et al. 2021). Approximately 90% of flowers, whether native or cultivated species are pollinated by biotic vectors such as insects, birds, and mammals, animals that can satisfactorily affect the production of about 75% of global crops by increasing fruit set, productivity, and quality (Ollerton et al. 2011; Lopes et al. 2021). Brazilian surveys (BPBES/REBIPP 2019) found that approximately 289 plant species are linked to human food and that there are data on the pollination mechanism of 191 of these species, of which biotic agents pollinate at least 148, from which bees pollinate 66.3%. The unsustainable use of natural resources and the degradation of ecosystems have caused approximately 75 to 95% of the biosphere to be altered by anthropogenic actions, resulting in significant impacts on fauna and flora (Wagner et al. 2021). Among the endangered animals are bees, whose population declines are attributed to factors such as climate change, incorrect and excessive use of pesticides, destruction of the landscape by deforestation and fires, transmission of pathogens, and contact with invasive species, among others (Mathiasson and Rehan 2020; LeBuhn and Vargas Luna 2021). Wang et al. (2021) report a significant reduction in the diversity of the gut microbiota of individuals exposed to MPs, as well as changes in the expression of antioxidant enzymes and genes associated with the immune system. Additionally, Viana et al. (2023) observe changes in the walking behavior of bees treated with MPs. MacIvor and Moore (2013) also note how bees can carry such contaminants to the hives as material for building their nests, while Alma et al. (2023) report the incorporation of MPs into honey, wax, and larvae within the colony. It can be assumed that contamination by microplastics may have consequences for the health of bees and consequently interfere with the efficiency of the ecosystem services they provide, such as pollination. This can potentially lead to long-term environmental imbalance. Moreover, changes in the microbiota can interfere with the conversion of nectar into honey, as many microorganisms play a role in this process. Because of this, the present work sought to carry out a systematic review of the literature between the years 2000 and 2024, following predetermined selection and exclusion criteria, seeking to evaluate the development of the scientific scenario regarding the existence of studies that correlate the microplastics with bees or their products, like honey, pollen, propolis, and wax. Material and methods Van Dinter et al. (2021) indicate that in general, the collection, extraction, and synthesis of the data obtained during the SLR are tasks performed highly manually and, therefore, are prone to errors and very laborious. However, the authors point out that many researchers have recently developed some approaches that seek to automate the steps of the SLR process, through software and Natural Language Processing (NLP). The present work sought to carry out a Systematic Literature Review (SLR) between the years 2000 and 2024, following predetermined selection and exclusion criteria, seeking to evaluate the development of the scientific scenario regarding the existence of works that correlate the microplastics with bees or their products, like honey. For the selection, electronic databases were used (Google Scholar, Scielo, Scopus, PubMed, and Web of Science), and preselected keywords in Portuguese (abelha, microplástico), English (bee, microplastic), and Spanish (abejas, microplasticos). All articles with the keywords were exported to the software Start 3.0.0., which allows the graphical organizing of the works according to the selection and exclusion criteria adopted in the software’s protocol guide. The selection criteria: I – being a primary study; II – dealing exclusively with bees/bee products; III – being written in Portuguese, English, or Spanish. The exclusion criteria: I – being a preprint; II – being a gray literature: abstracts, books, thesis, dissertations, review articles (Fig. 1). Initially, the review articles would be removed from the final survey, since articles of this type were included in the exclusion criteria. However, after thorough analysis, it was decided that such articles be included in the result, because they are quite frequent during the survey research and because they are very comprehensive after a more careful reading. Results According to the pre-established criteria, 920 papers were found, of which 28 were rejected because they were duplicate papers. In the first selection stage, 786 papers were rejected for not meeting at least one of the established selection criteria or for presenting words with the prefix “-bee,” such as the verbal structure “been.” Thus, 108 works were selected for a second, more careful selection stage, as they presented the keywords throughout the document. In this second stage of selection, 75 articles were rejected. Although most contained at least one of the keywords, they did not relate the subjects of bees and microplastics together, instead addressing these topics in isolation. Additionally, some articles focused on microplastics in relation to other organisms or on bees in relation to other contaminants. At the end of the selection process, 33 articles were accepted, since they presented specific relationships between the keywords of the protocol. All published articles were written in English (Fig. 2) The publication each. Of the 33 selected works, 24 dealt with bees and microplastics (sixteen primary studies, eight reviews), from which the primary publications addressed various subjects, such as changes in the immune system and risks of viral infections, changes in the microbiota, effects on the health and Leading Article
Vetnews | Mei 2025 10 « BACK TO CONTENTS Leading Article cognition of bees, as well as the influence on foraging behaviour and bees as active bioindicators of MP contamination. The review article, on the other hand, addressed the consequences that this contamination by microplastics in bees can cause in the ecosystems. Most papers that dealt explicitly with bees carried out their experiments using only the honeybees Apis mellifera (Linnaeus, 1758) as the test organism, Buteler et al. (2022) and Alma et al. (2023) used the subspecies Apis mellifera carnica (Pollman, 1879), and Deng et al. (2021), who, in addition to A. mellifera, also used the species Apis cerana (Fabricius, 1793) and Xue et al. (2024) used A. cerana. The paper of MacIvor and Moore (2013) uses the species Megachile campanulae (Robertson, 1903) and Megachile rotundata (Fabricius, 1787) as the test organism; and the paper of Viana et al. (2023) uses the species Partamona helleri (Friese, 1900) as the test organism. The paper of MacIvor and Moore (2013) reported the collection of polyurethane and polyethylene plastics for nest building. Alma et al. (2023) reported the incorporation of MP by bees through their food and how these particles are transferred to other sectors within the colonies, such as the honey stocks, wax, and immatures; Viana et al. (2023) reported the incorporation of MP and nanoparticles of a metal oxide via larval ingestion; and Cortés-Corrales et al. (2024) and Schiano et al. (2024) reported the presence of MPs in the bees and pollen. The other nine selected studies addressed honeybee products and microplastics (five primary studies and four review articles), all of which dealt exclusively with honey, not with the contamination in other products such as wax, propolis, and royal jelly. The five primary papers studied the presence of microplastics and the development of new techniques. for identifying this contaminant in honey. The four reviews also analyzed other products ingested by the human population, such as beer, water, fish, and salt, among other products. Regarding the years of publication, although the first three studies were published in 2013, 2015, and 2017, followed by 2019 with two publications, there is a significant increase in studies related to the subject from 2020 with four publications, followed by 2021 with seven, followed by 2022 with six, and 2023 with three publications. In 2024, until the period of this review, there were eight publications (Fig. 3). Among the countries of publication, Italy stands out with six (18.21%), followed by China with five (15.1%), followed by Germany with three (9%), followed by Denmark, Egypt, Brazil, Argentina, Canada, and Poland with two each (6.08% each), followed by seven more countries with one publication each (3.03% each), namely: India, Portugal, Ecuador, Republic of Serbia, Switzerland, Belgium, and Netherlands (Fig. 4).
Vetnuus | May 2025 11 Discussion From the thirty-three works selected, there was a great tendency for review works that addressed the subject, so it was decided that it would be essential to consider them in the results, and as such, the data shows the need for major primary studies on the subject. This is primarily because these reviews focus on insects and pollinators in general, without emphasizing the crucial role of bees in maintaining ecosystems. As for the results related to the topic (bees and honey), there is equivalence between them, indicating a concern regarding the health of animals and human nutrition through the ingestion of contaminated honey. Since species from the genus Apis are generalists with rustic characteristics, they have adapted satisfactorily in various environments and can be found worldwide (Parker et al. 2010). For this reason, these species are widely used in scientific research (mostly A. mellifera) and studies can be replicated anywhere in the world. However, as they are invasive species in many locations, such as the New World, little is known if the results obtained in these studies can be extended to the numerous existing native species (social or solitary). Regarding the analysis of the period in which the works were published (Fig. 3), it is observed that the first publication (2013) occurred 43 years after the first detection of microplastics in the oceans (1970) and after 9 years of the incorporation of the term “microplastic” in the scientific literature (2004) (Thompson et al. 2004). Such data indicate that in recent years the importance of bees in the ecosystem service they provide has become increasingly evident. Are bees at risk from MPs? The review article written by Al Naggar et al. (2021) addresses microplastics as a worrying emerging pollutant that has received significant attention in the last decade, as it is a ubiquitous contaminant in various spaces of the environment (atmosphere, soil, and water), affecting a wide range of organisms, mainly aquatic, but which can also end up in the atmosphere (Zhang et al. 2020). Because of this ubiquity, the authors point out that terrestrial organisms, as well as aquatic, interact with these plastic particles and many of these organisms provide essential ecosystem services for the maintenance of their environments (Al Naggar et al. 2021). This study then cites others that indicate an increase in the loss of swarms of A. mellifera since 2006 in Europe and the USA due to parasites, pesticides, habitat loss, infections, and inappropriate beekeeping practices—however, they point out that there are no studies that show the connection between these population declines and the possible exposure of bees to microplastics. The reviews by Al Naggar et al. (2024) and Bashir et al. (2024) provide comprehensive summaries of key research on the toxicity of MPs in honeybees, each offering different perspectives. Both reviews highlight that the findings are varied, largely depending on the material, size, and dosage of MPs used in experiments. The authors emphasize the need for more extensive studies in this area to better understand the impacts. They note that MPs have been identified in honey and various bee organs, posing significant risks to bee health. These risks manifest in behavioural changes, cognitive impairments, and disruptions to immunity and gut microbiota. Additionally, the reviews report alterations in feeding rates, body weight loss, and changes in the general profile of the bee cuticle, all of which could negatively impact the overall fitness and survival of honeybees. However, both reviews emphasize that most of the studies conducted so far have been laboratory-based, underscoring the need for more field and semi-field studies to understand the real-world consequences of MP contamination on bee colonies. They suggest that future research should focus on evaluating key aspects of colony health, such as brood patterns, queen-laying behaviour, drone vitality, and overall hive vigour. Additionally, it is crucial to determine whether the observed changes in bee health are influenced by the type of MP, its size, morphology, and concentration. Moreover, there is a significant gap in the understanding of the synergistic toxicity of MPs when combined with other environmental contaminants, such as pesticides, antibiotics, pathogens, and heavy metals. This gap highlights the need for comprehensive studies that consider the complex Leading Article Figure 3: Number of selected publications from 2000 to 2024 Figure 4: Number of publications selected by country (red – Italy, with six publications; green – China, with five publications; yellow – Germany, with three publications; blue – Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Denmark, Egypt with two publications each; purple – Belgium, Ecuador, India, Netherlands, Republic of Serbia, Switzerland with one publication each)
Vetnews | Mei 2025 12 « BACK TO CONTENTS interactions between MPs and other pollutants to fully assess their impact on bee health and colony sustainability. Bashir et al. (2024) also highlight some limitations associated with the collection, processing, and analysis of samples: (1) Collection: sample size and foraging patterns; (2) Processing: control of matrix contamination and interference; (3) Analysis: limits of detection and identification of particles; (4) Methodological standardization: lack of standardized protocols and interlaboratory variability. They suggest points that need more attention in future studies: interaction with other stressors, ecological impacts, developments of detection methods, nano-plastic interaction, omics approaches, and nanoecotoxicology. Bees as bioindicators of contamination by MPs Edo et al. (2021) tested the hypothesis that A. mellifera workers can carry microplastics from their foraging area back to the nest, which is variable, but can reach up to 10 km (Beekman and Ratnieks 2001; Couvillon et al. 2015), to verify whether this species can function as bioindicators of contamination by microplastics in urban, peri-urban, and rural areas. The study indicated the presence of microplastics in all sampled sites, which are mainly in the form of fragments (52%) and fibres (38%), with average equivalent diameters of 64 ± 39 µm for fibres and 234 ± 156 µm for fragments. The authors conclude by pointing out that the results prove the presence of microplastics, and materials of anthropogenic origin adhered to the bristles (body) of bees, which allows their use as active bioindicators of this contaminant. Edo et al. (2021) also highlight that their work demonstrated for the first time the possibility of using the species A. mellifera as a bioindicator of microplastics in the environment. Rodrigues et al. (2024) evaluated the presence of particulate matter (MPs) in A. mellifera workers across different environmental settings: urban, peri-urban, and rural areas. The bees were collected in collaboration with beekeepers in the municipality of Piedade, São Paulo, Brazil. The laboratory procedures were divided into two phases: Phase I involved analyzing external particles, those adhered to the bristles and bodies of the workers and, Phase II focused on analyzing internal particles, those present in the digestive tract of the workers. At the end of both laboratory phases, the particles found were classified by shape, colour, and size. A total of 507 particles were identified across the three areas: 307 fibres, 137 fragments, and 61 filaments. In the urban area, 76 particles were found, 190 particles in the peri-urban area, and 241 particles in the rural area. Subsequently, 30 spectra were obtained—10 from each area—using a Renishaw in Via Micro-Raman spectrometer (785 nm) in the spectral range of 1800–400 cm⁻1, with a resolution of 4 cm⁻1, an exposure time of 10 s, and 4 accumulations, to chemically characterize the particles found. Among the spectra obtained across the three areas, 13 particles were identified as polyethylene terephthalate (PET), 11 as polyamide (PA), 4 as polyethylene (PE), 1 as polyester (PL), and 1 as polyvinyl chloride (PVC). The authors suggest that the large number of particles found in less urbanized areas is likely due to the transport of MPs from their places of origin, carried by air masses and other means, allowing these contaminants to be deposited in more remote locations. They also conclude that A. mellifera workers are effective bioindicators of MP contamination in both terrestrial and airborne environments and that they act as airborne vehicles for these contaminants during their foraging activities. In urban areas, the workers were found to have a greater number of internal particles, indicating that these bees may have begun to incorporate unnatural resources into their habits. The authors further emphasize the importance of future studies to understand the consequences of ingesting these particles, particularly considering the capacity of MPs to adsorb other contaminants, which often coexist in the environment. In the review article by Cunningham et al. (2022), honeybees are considered bioindicators of environmental contaminants, pathogens, and climate change. Within the theme of environmental contaminants, the authors discuss persistent chemicals and particulate matter in the air, including MPs. Therefore, the authors define MPs as an emerging class of air pollutants that have effects on human health, as they are particles easily transported over long distances by wind and other vectors, such as animals, which can play a role as a catalyst for climate change. Thus, quantification of pollutants and persistent chemicals in bees and parent hives can help to identify potential target areas in which more significant remediation efforts or reductions in emissions of such pollutants are needed. MPs‑insecticides interaction Xue et al. (2024) analyzed the toxic effects of nano-polystyrene (nanoPS) and the insecticide cyfluthrin (Cy) on Apis cerana cerana Fabricius workers, both individually and in combination. NanoPS was tested at concentrations of 0.5, 5, and 50 mg/L, while the insecticide was used at a concentration of 0.2 mg/L, both diluted in a 50% sucrose solution. After 15 days of exposure, pathological analyses of the midgut, qPCR, biochemical tests, and intestinal metabolomic analysis were conducted. The results showed a significant reduction in the survival rate in the group treated with Cy (p < 0.01) compared to the control group. In the other groups, the survival rate also decreased, but the difference was not statistically significant. Regarding the intestinal analysis, the nanoPS and nanoPS + Cy groups exhibited rupture and disappearance of the intestinal basement membrane, a reduction in the number of cell nuclei, a decrease in the size of epithelial cells, and thinning of the intestinal wall. Additionally, there was an increase in the expression of the Cyp9Q1 gene in the NanoPS + Cy group, though this increase did not reach statistical significance. On the other hand, the expression of the P450 9e2 gene was significantly higher in the NanoPS and Cy groups compared to the control group. Metabolomic analysis revealed that MPs affect amino acid and ester metabolism in A. cerana cerana, likely leading to inhibition of pharyngeal gland development and downregulation of immune gene expression. The authors conclude that it is essential to understand the interactions between nanoPS and pesticides, as well as their effects on pollinators, to promote environmental protection and sustainable agriculture. Leading Article
Vetnuus | May 2025 13 Bee cognition and health Balzani et al. (2022) evaluated the effects of acute and chronic ingestion of polyethylene (PE) microplastics on the health and cognition of A. mellifera. Individuals were analyzed for survival, food intake, response, and habituation to sucrose and appetitive olfactory learning, as well as memory capacity. They showed that the worker bees are not entirely affected by the acute and prolonged ingestion of PE. However, a significant effect was observed; a high mortality of individuals exposed to the highest concentration (50 mg L−1). It was also observed that bees exposed to low concentrations (0.5 and 5 mg L −1) of PE consumed much more food (1 day: PE bees 31.8%, controls: 8.8%; 7 days: PE bees 19.3%, controls 10.9%) than those in the control group. On the behavioural and cognitive analyses, the researchers observed that high concentrations of PE affect the ability to respond consistently to sucrose. However, it does not affect sensitivity and habituation to it, nor does it affect learning and memory skills—such results also were observed for prolonged exposures). Even so, Balzani et al. (2022) warn that it is necessary to be very careful when discarding the possibility that PE particles are not harmful to honeybees, mainly due to the lack of knowledge about the concentrations of these particles in the natural environment. They also suggest that the potentially harmful effects of other types of microplastics as well as their combination must be studied, to verify whether such compounds reduce the integrity of the colony and fitness. Pasquini et al. (2024) analyzed the effects of oral exposure to spherical particulate matters (MPs) on cognitive capacity and brain accumulation in Apis mellifera bees. Acute exposure was assessed after 48 h of exposure to polystyrene (PS, 4.8–5.8 µm), polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA, 1–40 µm), and their combination (MIX) at concentrations of 0.5, 5, and 50 mg/L. The study evaluated responsiveness, appetitive olfactory learning, and memory capacity. Additionally, fluorescent thermoset amino formaldehyde microspheres (1–5 µm) were used to determine whether microspheres of this diameter can penetrate the blood-brain barrier of bees, utilizing two-photon fluorescence microscopy (TPFM) in combination with the DISCO clearing technique. The results indicated that PS caused a decrease in sucrose responsiveness at a concentration of 50 mg/L. The authors emphasize that this behavioural aspect is crucial for bees, as it reflects their ability to detect and respond to nectar sources. Consequently, PS can significantly impair the foraging behaviour of workers, even though the effects observed in the experiment were relatively mild. PMMA did not show a significant effect, while MIX demonstrated a strong negative impact on sucrose responsiveness at concentrations of 5 mg/L and 50 mg/L, suggesting that the combination of these substances can have synergistic effects on the cognitive function of workers. All three treatments impaired learning capacity and memory, with PS causing the most severe effects. The 3D brain imaging analysis revealed that MPs measuring 1 to 5 µm penetrated and accumulated in the brain after just 3 days of oral exposure, predominantly in the optic lobes, where particle aggregation occurred at varying depths within the tissue. The authors emphasize that these findings raise concerns about the potential mechanical, cellular, and biochemical damage these contaminants could inflict on the central nervous system. They suggest that a deeper understanding of the risks posed by MPs to bees can be achieved through complementary studies focused on the accumulation and persistence of these particles in the brain, and their effects on sensory systems, cognitive mechanisms, and behaviour patterns. Bee’s microbiota, immune system, and susceptibility to infections Wang et al. (2021) carried out experiments that proved the role of the intestinal microbiota of A. mellifera in protecting against the risks of polystyrene microplastics (PS) exposure. It was observed that after 14 days of exposure, the effects on bee mortality were relatively low (up to 1.6%), and no changes were observed in terms of mass body gain compared to control groups. However, significant reductions in the α diversity of the intestinal microbiota of exposed individuals were observed, followed by changes in the expression of antioxidant enzymes (CAT, CypQ1, and GstS3) and genes associated with the immune system (Domeless, Hopscotch, and Symplekin). After dissection, it was found that PS microplastics were accumulated and degraded within the hindgut of the bees so that they interacted with the local microbiota. Consequently, it was observed that the combination of microplastics-PS with tetracycline drastically increased the lethality of these particles, proving the protective role of the intestinal microbiota of bees against xenobiotics. These experiments were performed using bees outside the hive; thus, it is crucial to verify if this pattern also occurs within the hive. Another study by Wang et al. (2022) sought to assess the possible influences of polystyrene (PS) particles of different sizes (micro and nano-plastic) on A. mellifera, evaluating changes in the total body weight, as well as the accumulation of microplastics and intestinal development. Nano-plastics (NPs) alterations in the intestinal microbiota, gene transcription, and consequently alterations in the resistance of honeybees to pathogenic bacteria were also analyzed. As for body weight, it was observed that weight increased in the first 9 days of treatment, followed, after the 10th day, by a slight decrease in the exposed groups; in the control group, this decrease in body weight occurred only after the 12th day. The histological analyses showed that the epithelial cells of the intestine of the bees in the control group had normal nuclei with high staining capacity, intact cell boundaries, and homogeneous cytoplasm, while in the exposed group’s adverse effects were observed, such as basement membrane disruption and vacuolated cytoplasm. After dissection, it was observed that the group exposed to PS-100 nm had a thinner intestinal wall when compared to the control group; the crypt depth/thickness ratio was also significantly higher than in the control group and in the group exposed to PS-1 µm. It showed the intestines of individuals in the 100 nm group were atrophied. Concerning the displacement and storage of particles after ingestion, the authors indicate an accumulation of microplastics in the rectum because the rectum harbours an abundant microbiota. Leading Article
Vetnews | Mei 2025 14 « BACK TO CONTENTS The authors also emphasize that this accumulation can significantly affect the rectum’s microbiota, in addition to interfering with the use of the nutrients present in the pollen, since this accumulation hinders contact with the enzyme that facilitates the obtaining of nutrients. There was also a reduction in the abundance of intestinal Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium and greater stimulation of inhibitory genes and genes related to detoxification and energy balance. Furthermore, individuals became more susceptible to the pathogen Hafnia alvei, which increased the mortality rate by up to five times (Wang et al. 2022). Deng et al. (2021) were the first to report that PS ingestion by honeybees promotes susceptibility to viral infections. During the experiments, the researchers collected samples of A. mellifera and A. cerana from six provinces in China in order to examine the presence of PMs in these environments, as well as to identify which types were most frequent; later, some bees were exposed to different concentrations (0.1, 1, 10, and 100 mg/L) of spherical PS particles with different sizes (0.5, 5, and 50 µm) in 1 mL of 50% sucrose solution for 21 days. Survival rates in the first 14 days of exposure were significantly different between groups for both species. After qPCR analysis, a reduction in the expression of CYP9Q1 and GSTD1 was noted, while catalase was upregulated. Finally, the researchers evaluated how the presence of PS affected the proliferation of the Israeli acute paralysis virus (IAPV), with no significant difference in the survival rate between the group that received only IAPV and the one that received IAPV and PS in the first 7 days of exposure. Such differences appeared on the sixth and seventh day, and the PS-IAPV group showed reduced survival, as well as the levels of IAPV, began to increase significantly. Histological analyses, in turn, indicated that the exposed individuals had tissue damage in the midgut, which allowed the transport of these particles to the hemolymph, trachea, and Malpighian tubules. The review article by Nowak et al. (2021) discussed the characterization of the microbiota of honeybees and the importance of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) in protecting these animals since much has been discussed about the implementation of probiotics in their food, aiming at improving their health. The other review articles relate the consequences of MPs to the terrestrial ecosystem and its fauna in general. Bouaicha et al. (2022), for example, discussed the possible consequences on the soil and rhizosphere, exemplifying that bees can inadvertently collect MP during their nectar and pollen collections, flight and foraging, and even from the plants they visit. The review by Oliveira et al. (2019) also discusses the transport of MP by bees, warning of the risks of this contamination to the ecosystem service provided through pollination. Büks et al. (2020) warn about how terrestrial fauna can react to microplastic particles, citing that some mining bees can move such particles to the soil while constructing their underground nests. Alterations and reduction in the abundance of several cuticular compounds Ferrante et al. (2024) examined the toxicological effects of polystyrene (PS, 4.8–5.8 µm) and polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA, 1–40 µm), as well as their combination (MIX), on *Apis mellifera* bees. For each treatment, the oral toxicity of three concentrations (0.5, 5, and 50 mg/L) was evaluated in relation to their effects on the immune system and the survival of the workers. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC–MS) was also employed to investigate whether these particulate matters cause changes in the chemical profile of forages, given that immune activation can lead to alterations in cuticular hydrocarbons. Additionally, a behavioural assay was conducted to determine whether such changes influence the social recognition of bees, potentially compromising the overall integrity of the colony. With respect to food consumption, the results show that rates consistently decreased throughout the test period. Regarding mortality, bees treated with PS and PMMA at high and medium concentrations exhibited faster mortality rates compared to those in the control group. Overall, both particulate matters negatively impacted the survival and immune response of the bees. Additionally, changes in the cuticular profiles (a reduction in the abundance of several compounds) were observed for both MPs at medium and high concentrations, with PMMA showing particularly pronounced effects. Despite the cuticular alterations, the guard bees of the colonies did not prevent the entry of workers exposed to contaminants, showing no increase in the inspection or aggressive behaviour towards them. The exposed bees were treated the same way as unexposed bees. Considering this result, the authors emphasize that this is a crucial point that should be carefully considered in future studies, as it highlights the risk to both individual and colony health. Since contaminated individuals are not “identified” and expelled from the hive, they can more easily spread the particulate matter to other members of the colony. The authors conclude by stressing the urgency of intensifying research efforts to understand the threat that plastic pollution poses to pollinators. Reduction in bee feeding rate and body weight Al Naggar et al. (2023) conducted a study where they chronically exposed Apis mellifera bees (collected in the General Zoology apiary at Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, German), whose gut microbiota was well established, to small (27 ± 17 µm) and large (93 ± 25 µm) polystyrene microplastic (PS-MP) fragments. The bees were exposed to three different concentrations (1, 10, and 100 µg mL−1) for a period of 14 days. Throughout the experiment, the researchers evaluated several factors, including mortality rates, food consumption, and body weight, to determine the impact of these microplastics on the bees. The results of the study indicated that chronic exposure to polystyrene microplastics did not significantly affect the survival of the bees. However, it did lead to a reduction in food consumption and body weight, particularly in the group exposed to the PS-MP solution at a concentration of 10 µg per mL. These findings suggest that while immediate mortality may not be impacted, the reduced food intake and body weight could have long-term detrimental effects on bee health. The authors propose that the irregular shape of the microplastic fragments may contribute to obstructions in the bees’ mouthparts and digestive tract, leading to long-term Leading Article
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